1600–1699 (A.D.) World History

Pocahontas (c. 1595–1617) The Library of Congress Picture Collection Galileo (1564–1642) Johannes Kepler (1571–1630) Taj Mahal The Library of Congress Picture Collection John Milton (1608–1674)

1600

Giordano Bruno burned as a heretic. English East India Company established.

1603

Ieyasu rules Japan, moves capital to Edo (Tokyo). Shakespeare's Hamlet.

1605

Cervantes's Don Quixote de la Mancha, the first modern novel.

1607

Jamestown, Virginia, established—first permanent English colony on American mainland. Pocahantas, daughter of Chief Powhatan, saves life of John Smith.

1609

Samuel de Champlain establishes French colony of Quebec. The Relation, the first newspaper, debuts in Germany.

1610

Galileo sees the moons of Jupiter through his telescope.

1611

Gustavus Adolphus elected King of Sweden. King James Version of the Bible published in England. Rubens paints his Descent from the Cross.

1614

John Napier discovers logarithms.

1618

Start of the Thirty Years war, Protestants revolt against Catholic oppression; Denmark, Sweden, and France will invade Germany in later phases of war. Kepler proposes last of three laws of planetary motion.

1619

A Dutch ship brings the first African slaves to British North America.

1620

Pilgrims, after three-month voyage in Mayflower, land at Plymouth Rock. Francis Bacon's Novum Organum.

1623

New Netherland founded by Dutch West India Company.

1630

Massachusetts Bay Colony.

1632

Maryland founded by Lord Baltimore.

1633

Inquisition forces Galileo (astronomer) to recant his belief in Copernican theory.

1642

Englidsh Civil War. Cavaliers, supporters of Charles I, against Roundheads, parliamentary forces. Oliver Cromwell defeats Royalists (1646). Parliament demands reforms. Charles I offers concessions, brought to trial (1648), beheaded (1649). Cromwell becomes Lord Protector (1653). Rembrandt paints his Night Watch.

1643

Taj Mahal completed.

1644

End of Ming Dynasty in China—Manchus come to power. Descarte's Principles of Philosophy.

1648

End of the Thirty Years' War. German population about half of what it was in 1618 because of war and pestilence.

1658

Cromwell dies; son Richard resigns and Puritan government collapses.

1660

English Parliament calls for the restoration of the monarchy; invites Charles II to return from France.

1661

Charles II is crowned King of England. Louis XIV begins personal rule as absolute monarch; starts to build Versailles.

1664

British take New Amsterdam from the Dutch. English limit “Nonconformity” with reestablished Anglican Church. Isaac Newton's experiments with gravity.

1665

Great Plague in London kills 75,000.

1666

Great Fire of London. Molière's Misanthrope.

1667

Milton's Paradise Lost, widely considered the greatest epic poem in English.

1682

Pennsylvania founded by William Penn.

1683

War of European powers against the Turks (to 1699). Vienna withstands three-month Turkish siege; high point of Turkish advance in Europe.

1684

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz's calculus published.

1685

James II succeeds Charles II in England, calls for freedom of conscience (1687). Protestants fear restoration of Catholicism and demand “Glorious Revolution.” William of Orange invited to England and James II escapes to France (1688). William III and his wife, Mary, crowned. In France, Edict of Nantes of 1598, granting freedom of worship to Huguenots, is revoked by Louis XIV; thousands of Protestants flee.

1689

Peter the Great becomes Czar of Russia—attempts to westernize nation and build Russia as a military power. Defeats Charles XII of Sweden at Poltava (1709). Beginning of the French and Indian wars (to 1763), campaigns in America linked to a series of wars between France and England for domination of Europe.

1690

William III of England defeats former king James II and Irish rebels at Battle of the Boyne in Ireland.John Locke's Human Understanding.

1500–1599 (A.D.) World History

Michelangelo's David (1504) Tasha Vincent Martin Luther (1483–1546) Henry VIII(1491–1547) Queen Elizabeth I (1533–1603) William Shakespeare (1564–1616) Rembrandt van Rijn (1606–1669) Catherine de Medici (1519–1589)

1501

First black slaves in America brought to Spanish colony of Santo Domingo.

c. 1503

Leonardo da Vinci paints the Mona Lisa. Michelangelo sculpts the David (1504).

1506

St. Peter's Church started in Rome; designed and decorated by such artists and architects as Bramante, Michelangelo, da Vinci, Raphael, and Bernini before its completion in 1626.

1509

Henry VIII ascends English throne. Michelangelo paints the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel.

1513

Balboa becomes the first European to encounter the Pacific Ocean. Machiavelli writes The Prince.

1517

Turks conquer Egypt, control Arabia. Martin Luther posts his 95 theses denouncing church abuses on church door in Wittenberg—start of the Reformation in Germany.

1519

Ulrich Zwingli begins Reformation in Switzerland. Hernando Cortes conquers Mexico for Spain. Charles I of Spain is chosen Holy Roman Emperor Charles V. Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan sets out to circumnavigate the globe.

1520

Luther excommunicated by Pope Leo X. Suleiman I (“the Magnificent”) becomes Sultan of Turkey, invades Hungary (1521), Rhodes (1522), attacks Austria (1529), annexes Hungary (1541), Tripoli (1551), makes peace with Persia (1553), destroys Spanish fleet (1560), dies (1566). Magellan reaches the Pacific, is killed by Philippine natives (1521). One of his ships under Juan Sebastián del Cano continues around the world, reaches Spain (1522).

1524

Verrazano, sailing under the French flag, explores the New England coast and New York Bay.

1527

Troops of the Holy Roman Empire attack Rome, imprison Pope Clement VII—the end of the Italian Renaissance. Castiglione writes The Courtier. The Medici family expelled from Florence.

1532

Pizarro marches from Panama to Peru, kills the Inca chieftain, Atahualpa, of Peru (1533). Machiavelli's The Prince published posthumously.

1535

Reformation begins as Henry VIII makes himself head of English Church after being excommunicated by Pope. Sir Thomas More executed as traitor for refusal to acknowledge king's religious authority. Jacques Cartier sails up the St. Lawrence River, basis of French claims to Canada.

1536

Henry VIII executes second wife, Anne Boleyn. John Calvin establishes Reformed and Presbyterian form of Protestantism in Switzerland, writes Institutes of the Christian Religion. Danish and Norwegian Reformations. Michelangelo's Last Judgment.

1541

John Knox leads Reformation in Scotland, establishes Presbyterian church there (1560).

1543

Publication of On the Revolution of Heavenly Bodies by Polish scholar Nicolaus Copernicus—giving his theory that the earth revolves around the sun.

1545

Council of Trent to meet intermittently until 1563 to define Catholic dogma and doctrine, reiterate papal authority.

1547

Ivan IV (“the Terrible”) crowned as czar of Russia, begins conquest of Astrakhan and Kazan (1552), battles nobles (boyars) for power (1564), kills his son (1580), dies, and is succeeded by his weak and feeble-minded son, Fyodor I.

1553

Roman Catholicism restored in England by Queen Mary I.

1556

Akbar the Great becomes Mogul emperor of India, conquers Afghanistan (1581), continues wars of conquest (until 1605).

1558

Queen ElizabethIascends the throne (rules to 1603). Restores Protestantism, establishes state Church of England (Anglicanism). Renaissance will reach height in England—Shakesspere, Marlowe, Spenser.

1561

Persecution of Hugentos

in France stopped by Edict of Orleans. French religious wars begin again with massacre of Huguenots at Vassy. St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre—thousands of Huguenots murdered (1572). Amnesty granted (1573). Persecution continues periodically until Edict of Nantes (1598) gives Huguenots religious freedom (until 1685).

1568

Protestant Netherlands revolts against Catholic Spain; independence will be acknowledged by Spain in 1648.

1570

Japan permits visits of foreign ships. Queen Elizabeth I excommunicated by Pope. Turks attack Cyprus and war on Venice. Turkish fleet defeated at Battle of Lepanto by Spanish and Italian fleets (1571). Peace of Constantinople (1572) ends Turkish attacks on Europe.

1580

Francis Drake returns to England after circumnavigating the globe; knighted by Queen Elizabeth I (1581). Montaigne's Essays published.

1582

Pope Gregory XIII implements the Gregorian Calander.

1583

William of Orange rules the Netherlands; assassinated on orders of Philip II of Spain (1584).

1587

Mary,Queen of Scotts, executed for treason by order of Queen Elizabeth I. Monteverdi's First Book of Madrigals.

1588

Defeat of the Spanish Armada by English. Henry, King of Navarre and Protestant leader, recognized as Henry IV, first Bourbon king of France. Converts to Roman Catholicism in 1593 in attempt to end religious wars.

1590

Henry IV enters Paris, wars on Spain (1595), marries Marie de Medici (1600), assassinated (1610). Spenser's The Faerie Queen. El Greco's St. Jerome. Galileo's experiments with falling objects.

1598

Boris Godunov becomes Russian czar. Tycho Brahe describes his astronomical experiments.

1400–1499 (A.D.) World History

The Duomo in Florence Linda J. Barnes Joan of Arc (1412–1431)

1407

Casa di San Giorgio, one of the first public banks, founded in Genoa.

1415

Henry V defeats French at Agincourt. Jan Hus, Bohemian preacher and follower of Wycliffe, burned at stake in Constance as heretic.

1418–1460

Portugal's Prince Henry the Navigator sponsors exploration of Africa's coast.

1420

Brunelleschi begins work on the Duomo in Florence.

1428

Joan of arc leads French against English, captured by Burgundians (1430) and turned over to the English, burned at the stake as a witch after ecclesiastical trial (1431).

1438

Incas rule in Peru.

1450

Florence becomes center of Renaissance arts and learning under the Medicis.

1453

Turks conquer Constantinople, end of the Byzantine Empire, beginning of the Ottoman Empire.

1455

The Wars of the Roses, civil wars between rival noble factions, begin in England (to 1485). Having invented printing with movable type at Mainz, Germany, Johann Gutenberg completes first Bible.

1462

Ivan the Great rules Russia until 1505 as first czar; ends payment of tribute to Mongols.

1492

Moors conquered in Spain by troops of Ferdinand and Isabella. Columbus becomes first European to encounter Caribbean islands, returns to Spain (1493). Second voyage to Dominica, Jamaica, Puerto Rico (1493–1496). Third voyage to Orinoco (1498). Fourth voyage to Honduras and Panama (1502–1504).

1497

Vasco da Gama sails around Africa and discovers sea route to India (1498). Establishes Portuguese colony in India (1502). John Cabot, employed by England, reaches and explores Canadian coast. Michelangilo's Bacchus sculpture.

1300–1399 (A.D.) World History

1312–1337

Mali Empire reaches its height in Africa under King Mansa Musa.

c. 1325

The beginning of the Renaissence in Italy: writers Dante, Petrarch, Boccaccio; painter Giotto. Development of Noh drama in Japan. Aztecs establish Tenochtitlán on site of modern Mexico City. Peak of Muslim culture in Spain. Small cannon in use.

1337–1453

Hundred Years' War—English and French kings fight for control of France.

1347–1351

At least 25 million people die in Europe's “Black Death” (bubonic plague).

1368

Ming Dynasty begins in China.

1376–1382

John Wycliffe, pre-Reformation religious reformer, and followers translate Latin Bible into English.

1378

The Great Schism (to 1417)—rival popes in Rome and Avignon, France, fight for control of Roman Catholic Church.

c. 1387

Chaucer's Canterbury Tales.

1398

Tamerlane, the Mongol conqueror, begins last great conquest—Delhi.

1200–1299 (A.D.) World History

King John (1167–1216) Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274)

1200–1204

Fourth Crusade.

1211

Genghis Khan invades China, captures Peking (1214), conquers Persia (1218), invades Russia (1223), dies (1227).

1212

Children's Crusade.

1215

King John forced by barons to sign at Runneymede, limiting royal power.

1217

Fifth Crusade.

1228

Sixth Crusade.

1231

The Inquisition begins as Pope Gregory IX assigns Dominicans responsibility for combating heresy. Torture used (1252). Ferdinand and Isabella establish Spanish Inquisition (1478). Tourquemada, Grand Inquisitor, forces conversion or expulsion of Spanish Jews (1492). Forced conversion of Moors (1499). Inquisition in Portugal (1531). First Protestants burned at the stake in Spain (1543). Spanish Inquisition abolished (1834).

1241

Mongols defeat Germans in Silesia, invade Poland and Hungary, withdraw from Europe after Ughetai, Mongol leader, dies.

1248

Seventh Crusade.

1251

Kublai Khan governs China, becomes ruler of Mangols (1259), establishes Yuan dynasty in China (1280), invades Burma (1287), dies (1294).

1260

Chartres cathedral consecrated.

1270

Eighth Crusade.

1271

Marco Polo of Venice travels to China, in court of Kublai Khan (1275–1292), returns to Genoa (1295) and writes Travels.

1273

Thomas Aquinas stops work on Summa Theologica, the basis of all Catholic theological teaching; never completes it.

1295

English King Edward I summons the Model Parliament.

1100–1199 (A.D.) World History

Chartres Cathedral Tasha Vincent

1100–1300

Construction of Cathedral at Chartres, France.

1144

Second Crusade begins.

c. 1150

Angkor Wat is completed.

1150–1167

Universities of Paris and Oxford founded in France and England.

1162

Thomas Backet named Archbishop of Canterbury, murdered by Henry II's men (1170). Troubadours (wandering minstrels) glorify romantic concepts of feudalism.

1169

Ibn-Rushd begins translating Aristotle's works.

1189

Richard I (“the Lionhearted”) succeeds Henry II in England, killed in France (1199), succeeded by King John. Third Crusade.

1000–1099 (A.D.) World History

Mesa VerdeCliff Dwellings(c. 1000–1300) Pete Maio Cathedral and Tower at Pisa Tasha Vincent

c. 1000–1300

Classic Pueblo period of Anasazi culture; cliff dwellings.

c. 1000

Hungary and Scandinavia converted to Christianity. Viking raider Leif Eriksson discovers North America, calls it Vinland. Beowulf, Old English epic.

c. 1008

Murasaki Shikibu finishes The Tale of Genji, the world's first novel.

1009

Muslims destroy Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem.

1013

Danes control England. Canute takes throne (1016), conquers Norway (1028), dies (1035); kingdom divided among his sons: Harold Harefoot (England), Sweyn (Norway), Hardecanute (Denmark).

1040

Macbeth murders Duncan, king of Scotland.

1053

Robert Guiscard, Norman invader, establishes kingdom in Italy, conquers Sicily (1072).

1054

Final separation between Eastern (Orthodox) and Western (Roman) churches.

1055

Seljuk Turks, Asian nomads, move west, capture Baghdad, Armenia (1064), Syria, and Palestine (1075).

1066

William of Normandy invades England, defeats last Saxon king, Harold II, at Battle of Hastings, crowned William-I of England (“the Conqueror”).

1068

Construction on the cathedral in Pisa, Italy, begins.

1073

Emergence of strong papacy when Gregory VII is elected. Conflict with English and French kings and German emperors will continue throughout medieval period.

1095

At Council of Clermont, Pope Urban II calls for a holy war to wrest control of Jerusalem from Muslims, which launches the First Crusade (1096), one of at least 8 European military campaigns between 1095 and 1291 to regain the Holy Land. (For detailed chronology.)

1–999 (A.D.) World History

Roman AqueductMontpellier, France Tina Diodati Christ Celtic Cross Renée Scott Mayan Pyramid at Chichén Itzá Renée Scott Japanese Pagoda Erik Hjortshoj Viking Ship (c. 900)

1–49

Birth of Jesus Christ (variously given from 4 B.C. to A.D. 7). After Augustus, Tiberius becomes emperor (dies, A.D. 37), succeeded by Caligula (assassinated, A.D. 41), who is followed by Claudius. Crucifixion of Jesus (probably A.D. 30). Han dynasty in China founded by Emperor Kuang Wu Ti. Buddhism introduced to China.

50–99

Claudius poisoned (A.D. 54), succeeded by Nero (commits suicide, A.D. 68). Missionary journeys of Paul the Apostle (A.D. 34–60). Jews revolt against Rome; Jerusalem destroyed (A.D. 70). Roman persecutions of Christians begin (A.D. 64). Colosseum built in Rome (A.D. 71–80). Trajan (rules A.D. 98–116); Roman empire extends to Mesopotamia, Arabia, Balkans. First Gospels of St. Mark, St. John, St. Matthew.

100–149

Hadrian rules Rome (A.D. 117–138); codifies Roman law, rebuilds Pantheon, establishes postal system, builds wall between England and Scotland. Jews revolt under Bar Kokhba (A.D. 122–135); final Diaspora (dispersion) of Jews begins.

150–199

Marcus Aurelius rules Rome (A.D. 161–180). Oldest Mayan temples in Central America (c. A.D. 200).

200–249

Goths invade Asia Minor (c. A.D. 220). Roman persecutions of Christians increase. Persian (Sassanid) empire re-established. End of Chinese Han dynasty.

250–299

Increasing invasions of the Roman empire by Franks and Goths. Buddhism spreads in China. Classic period of Mayan civilization (A.D. 250–900); develop hieroglyphic writing, advances in art, architecture, science.

300–349

Constantine the Great (rules A.D. 312–337) reunites eastern and western Roman empires, with new capital (Constantinople) on site of Byzantium (A.D. 330); issues Edict of Milan legalizing Christianity (A.D. 313); becomes a Christian on his deathbed (A.D. 337). Council of Nicaea (A.D. 325) defines orthodox Christian doctrine. First Gupta dynasty in India (c. A.D. 320).

350–399

Huns (Mongols) invade Europe (c. A.D. 360). Theodosius the Great (rules A.D. 392–395)—last emperor of a united Roman empire. Roman empire permanently divided in A.D. 395: western empire ruled from Rome; eastern empire ruled from Constantinople.

400–449

Western Roman empire disintegrates under weak emperors. Alaric, king of the Visigoths, sacks Rome (A.D. 410). Attila, Hun chieftain, attacks Roman provinces (A.D. 433). St. Patrick returns to Ireland (A.D. 432) and brings Christianity to the island. St. Augustine's City of God (A.D. 411).

450–499

Vandals destroy Rome (A.D. 455). Western Roman empire ends as Odoacer, German chieftain, overthrows last Roman emperor, Romulus Augustulus, and becomes king of Italy (A.D. 476). Ostrogothic kingdom of Italy established by Theodoric the Great (A.D. 493). Clovis, ruler of the Franks, is converted to Christianity (A.D. 496). First schism between western and eastern churches (A.D. 484).

500–549

Eastern and western churches reconciled (519). Justinian I, the Great (483–565), becomes Byzantine emperor (527), issues his first code of civil laws (529), conquers North Africa, Italy, and part of Spain. Plague spreads through Europe (542 et seq.). Arthur, semi-legendary king of the Britons (killed, c. 537). Boëthius, Roman scholar (executed, 524).

550–599

Beginnings of European silk industry after Justinian's missionaries smuggle silkworms out of China (553). Mohammed, founder of Islam (570–632). Buddhism in Japan (c. 560). St. Augustine of Canterbury brings Christianity to Britain (597). After killing about half the population, plague in Europe subsides (594).

600–649

Mohammed flees from Mecca to Medina (the Hegira); first year of the Muslim calendar (622). Muslim empire grows (634). Arabs conquer Jerusalem (637), conquer Persians (641).

650–699

Arabs attack North Africa (670), destroy Carthage (697). Venerable Bede, English monk (672–735).

700–749

Arab empire extends from Lisbon to China (by 716). Charles Martel, Frankish leader, defeats Arabs at Tours/Poitiers, halting Arab advance in Europe (732). Charlemagne (742–814). Introduction of pagodas in Japan from China.

750–799

Charlemagne becomes king of the Franks (771). Caliph Harun al-Rashid rules Arab empire (786–809): the “golden age” of Arab culture. Vikings begin attacks on Britain (790), land in Ireland (795). City of Machu Picchu flourishes in Peru.

800–849

Charlemagne crowned first Holy Roman Emperor in Rome (800). Charlemagne dies (814), succeeded by his son, Louis the Pious, who divides France among his sons (817). Arabs conquer Crete, Sicily, and Sardinia (826–827).

850–899

Norsemen attack as far south as the Mediterranean but are thwarted (859), discover Iceland (861). Alfred the Great becomes king of Britain (871), defeats Danish invaders (878). Russian nation founded by Vikings under Prince Rurik, establishing capital at Novgorod (855–879).

900–949

Beginning of Mayan Post-Classical period (900–1519). Vikings discover Greenland (c. 900). Arab Spain under Abd ar-Rahman III becomes center of learning (912–961). Otto I becomes King of Germany (936).

950–999

Mieczyslaw I becomes first ruler of Poland (960). Eric the Red establishes first Viking colony in Greenland (982). Hugh Capet elected King of France in 987; Capetian dynasty to rule until 1328. Musical notation systematized (c. 990). Vikings and Danes attack Britain (988–999). Otto I crowned Holy Roman Emperor by Pope John XII (962).

Ancient History

4.5 billion B.C.

Planet Earth formed.

3 billion B.C.

First signs of primeval life (bacteria and blue-green algae) appear in oceans.

600 million B.C.

Earliest date to which fossils can be traced.

4.4 million B.C.

Earliest known hominid fossils (Ardipithecus ramidus) found in Aramis, Ethiopia, 1994.

4.2 million B.C.

Australopithecus anamensis found in Lake Turkana, Kenya, 1995.

3.2 million B.C.

Australopithecus afarenis (nicknamed “Lucy”) found in Ethiopia, 1974.

2.5 million B.C.

Homo habilis (“Skillful Man”). First brain expansion; is believed to have used stone tools.

1.8 million B.C.

Homo erectus (“Upright Man”). Brain size twice that of Australopithecine species.

1.7 million B.C.

Homo erectus leaves Africa.

100,000 B.C.

First modern Homo sapiens in South Africa.

70,000 B.C.

Neanderthal man (use of fire and advanced tools).

35,000 B.C.

Neanderthal man replaced by later groups of Homo sapiens (i.e., Cro-Magnon man, etc.).

18,000 B.C.

Cro-Magnons replaced by later cultures.

15,000 B.C.

Migrations across Bering Straits into the Americas.

10,000 B.C.

Semi-permanent agricultural settlements in Old World.

10,000–4,000 B.C.

Development of settlements into cities and development of skills such as the wheel, pottery, and improved methods of cultivation in Mesopotamia and elsewhere.

5500–3000 B.C.

Predynastic Egyptian cultures develop (5500–3100 B.C.); begin using agriculture (c. 5000 B.C.). Earliest known civilization arises in Sumer (4500–4000 B.C.). Earliest recorded date in Egyptian calendar (4241 B.C.). First year of Jewish calendar (3760 B.C.). First phonetic writing appears (c. 3500 B.C.). Sumerians develop a city-state civilization (c. 3000 B.C.). Copper used by Egyptians and Sumerians. Western Europe is neolithic, without metals or written records.

3000–2000 B.C.

Pharaonic rule begins in Egypt. King Khufu (Cheops), 4th dynasty (2700–2675 B.C.), completes construction of the Great Pyramid at Giza (c. 2680 B.C.). The Great Sphinx of Giza (c. 2540 B.C.) is built by King Khafre. Earliest Egyptian mummies. Papyrus. Phoenician settlements on coast of what is now Syria and Lebanon. Semitic tribes settle in Assyria. Sargon, first Akkadian king, builds Mesopotamian empire. The Gilgamesh epic (c. 3000 B.C.). Systematic astronomy in Egypt, Babylon, India, China.

3000–1500 B.C.

The most ancient civilization on the Indian subcontinent, the sophisticated and extensive Indus Valley civilization, flourishes in what is today Pakistan. In Britain, Stonehenge erected according to some unknown astronomical rationale. Its three main phases of construction are thought to span c. 3000–1500 B.C.

2000–1500 B.C.

Hyksos invaders drive Egyptians from Lower Egypt (17th century B.C.). Amosis I frees Egypt from Hyksos (c. 1600 B.C.). Assyrians rise to power—cities of Ashur and Nineveh. Twenty-four-character alphabet in Egypt. Cuneiform inscriptions used by Hittites. Peak of Minoan culture on Isle of Crete—earliest form of written Greek. Hammurabi, king of Babylon, develops oldest existing code of laws (18th century B.C.).

1500–1000 B.C.

Ikhnaton develops monotheistic religion in Egypt (c. 1375 B.C.). His successor, Tutankhamen, returns to earlier gods. Greeks destroy Troy (c. 1193 B.C.). End of Greek civilization in Mycenae with invasion of Dorians. Chinese civilization develops under Shang Dynasty. Olmec civilization in Mexico—stone monuments; picture writing.

1000–900 B.C.

Solomon succeeds King David, builds Jerusalem temple. After Solomon's death, kingdom divided into Israel and Judah. Hebrew elders begin to write Old Testament books of Bible. Phoenicians colonize Spain with settlement at Cadiz.

900–800 B.C.

Phoenicians establish Carthage (c. 810 B.C.). The Iliad and the Odyssey, perhaps composed by Greek poet Homer.

800–700 B.C.

Prophets Amos, Hosea, Isaiah. First recorded Olympic games (776 B.C.). Legendary founding of Rome by Romulus (753 B.C.). Assyrian king Sargon II conquers Hittites, Chaldeans, Samaria (end of Kingdom of Israel). Earliest written music. Chariots introduced into Italy by Etruscans.

700–600 B.C.

End of Assyrian Empire (616 B.C.)—Nineveh destroyed by Chaldeans (Neo-Babylonians) and Medes (612 B.C.). Founding of Byzantium by Greeks (c. 660 B.C.). Building of the Acropolis in Athens. Solon, Greek lawgiver (640–560 B.C.). Sappho of Lesbos, Greek poet (fl. c. 610–580 B.C.). Lao-tse, Chinese philosopher and founder of Taoism (born c. 604 B.C.).

600–500 B.C.

Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar builds empire, destroys Jerusalem (586 B.C.). Babylonian Captivity of the Jews (starting 587 B.C.). Hanging Gardens of Babylon. Cyrus the Great of Persia creates great empire, conquers Babylon (539 B.C.), frees the Jews. Athenian democracy develops. Aeschylus, Greek dramatist (525–465 B.C.). Pythagoras, Greek philosopher and mathematician (582?–507? B.C.). Confucius (551–479 B.C.) develops ethical and social philosophy in China. The Analects or Lun-yü (“collected sayings”) are compiled by the second generation of Confucian disciples. Buddha (563?–483? B.C.) founds Buddhism in India.

500–400 B.C.

Greeks defeat Persians: battles of Marathon (490 B.C.), Thermopylae (480 B.C.), Salamis (480 B.C.). Peloponnesian Wars between Athens and Sparta (431–404 B.C.)—Sparta victorious. Pericles comes to power in Athens (462 B.C.). Flowering of Greek culture during the Age of Pericles (450–400 B.C.). The Parthenon is built in Athens as a temple of the goddess Athena (447–432 B.C.). Ictinus and Callicrates are the architects and Phidias is responsible for the sculpture. Sophocles, Greek dramatist (496?–406 B.C.). Hippocrates, Greek “Father of Medicine” (born 460 B.C.). Xerxes I, king of Persia (rules 485–465 B.C.).

400–300 B.C.

Pentateuch—first five books of the Old Testament evolve in final form. Philip of Macedon, who believed himself to be a descendant of the Greek people, assassinated (336 B.C.) after subduing the Greek city-states; succeeded by son, Alexander the Great (356–323 B.C.), who destroys Thebes (335 B.C.), conquers Tyre and Jerusalem (332 B.C.), occupies Babylon (330 B.C.), invades India, and dies in Babylon. His empire is divided among his generals; one of them, Seleucis I, establishes Middle East empire with capitals at Antioch (Syria) and Seleucia (in Iraq). Trial and execution of Greek philosopher Socrates (399 B.C.). Dialogues recorded by his student, Plato (c. 427–348 or 347 B.C.). Euclid's work on geometry (323 B.C.). Aristotle, Greek philosopher (384–322 B.C.). Demosthenes, Greek orator (384–322 B.C.). Praxiteles, Greek sculptor (400–330 B.C.).

300–251 B.C.

First Punic War (264–241 B.C.): Rome defeats the Carthaginians and begins its domination of the Mediterranean. Temple of the Sun at Teotihuacán, Mexico (c. 300 B.C.). Invention of Mayan calendar in Yucatán—more exact than older calendars. First Roman gladiatorial games (264 B.C.). Archimedes, Greek mathematician (287–212 B.C.).

250–201 B.C.

Second Punic War (219–201 B.C.): Hannibal, Carthaginian general (246–142 B.C.), crosses the Alps (218 B.C.), reaches gates of Rome (211 B.C.), retreats, and is defeated by Scipio Africanus at Zama (202 B.C.). Great Wall of China built (c. 215 B.C.).

200–151 B.C.

Romans defeat Seleucid King Antiochus III at Thermopylae (191 B.C.)—beginning of Roman world domination. Maccabean revolt against Seleucids (167 B.C.).

150–101 B.C.

Third Punic War (149–146 B.C.): Rome destroys Carthage, killing 450,000 and enslaving the remaining 50,000 inhabitants. Roman armies conquer Macedonia, Greece, Anatolia, Balearic Islands, and southern France. Venus de Milo (c. 140 B.C.). Cicero, Roman orator (106–43 B.C.).

100–51 B.C.

Julius Caesar (100–44 B.C.) invades Britain (55 B.C.) and conquers Gaul (France) (c. 50 B.C.). Spartacus leads slave revolt against Rome (71 B.C.). Romans conquer Seleucid empire. Roman general Pompey conquers Jerusalem (63 B.C.). Cleopatra on Egyptian throne (51–31 B.C.). Chinese develop use of paper (c. 100 B.C.). Virgil, Roman poet (70–19 B.C.). Horace, Roman poet (65–8 B.C.).

50–1 B.C.

Caesar crosses Rubicon to fight Pompey (50 B.C.). Herod made Roman governor of Judea (37 B.C.). Caesar murdered (44 B.C.). Caesar's nephew, Octavian, defeats Mark Antony and Cleopatra at Battle of Actium (31 B.C.), and establishes Roman empire as Emperor Augustus; rules 27 B.C.–A.D. 14. Pantheon built for the first time under Agrippa, 27 B.C. Ovid, Roman poet (43 B.C.–A.D. 18).

Nobel Prize Winners - Economics

Year	Name	Country
1969	Ragnar Frisch Jan Tinbergen	Norwegian Dutch
1970	Paul A.Samuelson	U.S.
1971	Simon Kuznets	U.S.
1972	Kenneth J. Arrow John R. Hicks	U.S. Britain
1973	Wassily Leontief	U.S.
1974	Gunnar Myrdal Friedrich A.von Hayek	Sweden Australia
1975	Tjalling Koopmans Leonid Kantorovich	Dutch-U.S USSR
1976	Milton Friedman	U.S.
1977	Bertil Ohlin James E. Meade	Swedish Britain
1978	Herbert A. Simon	U.S.
1979	Theodore W. Schultz Sir Arthur Lewis	U.S. Britain
1980	Lawrence R. Klein	U.S.
1981	James Tobin	U.S.
1982	George J. Stigler	U.S.
1983	Gerard Debreu	France - U.S.
1984	Richard Stone	Britain
1985	Franco Modigliani	Italy - U.S.
1986	James M.Buchanan	U.S.
1987	Robert M. Solow	U.S.
1988	Maurice Allais	France
1989	Trygve Haavelmo	Norway
1990	Harry M. Markowitz William F. Sharpe, Merton H. Miller	U.S.
1991	Ronald H.Coase	Britain - U.S
1992	Gary S.Becker	U.S.
1993	Robert W. Fogel, Douglass C. North	U.S.
1994	John C. Harsanyi, John F. Nash	U.S.
1995	Robert W. Fogel, Douglass C.Norht	U.S.
1996	James A. Mirrlees William Vickrey	Uk Canada
1997	Robert C. Merton, Myron S.Scholes	U.S.
1998	Amarty Sen	India
1999	Robert Mundell	Canada
2000	James J. Heckman Daniel L. McFadden	USA USA
2001	George A. Akerlof A. Michael Spence Joseph E. Stiglitz	USA USA USA
2002	Daniel Kahneman Vernon L. Smith	USA USA

VOLCANOES

Name	Country	Date of Last Notified Eruption
Ojos dei Saldo	Argentina-Chile	1981- Steams
Guallatiri	Chile	1960
Cotopaxi	Ecuador	1975
Lascar	Chile	1968
Tupungatito	Chile	1964
Popocatepetl	Mexico	1920- Steams
Nevado del Ruiz	Colombia	1985
Sangay	Ecuador	1976
Klyuchevskaya Sopka	Russia	1974
Purace	Colombia	1977
Mauna Loa	USA	1978
Tacana	Guatemala	Rumbles
Cameroon Mt.	Cameroon	1959
Erebus	Antarctica	1975
Rindjiani	Indonesia (Lombok)	1966
Pico de Teide	Spain	1909
Semeru	Indonesia (Java)	1976
Nyirangongo	Zaire	1977
Mt. Etna	Italy	Active
Mt. Unzen	Japan	1991 (after 200 yrs)
mt.Pinatubo	Philippines	1991 (after 600 yrs)
Barren Island (andaman)	India	Active
Tajumulco	Guatemala	Rumbles